India-Pakistan Naval Clash and Operation Sindoor: A Test of Civil-Military Coordination

India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) summoned Pakistan’s Charge d’Affaires on September 16, 2026, lodging a protest over a naval collision that violated the 1991 Agreement on Advance Notice of Military Exercises. The incident, occurring in international waters, highlighted tensions in India’s civil-military coordination amid broader strategic recalibrations following Operation Sindoor 2025. The Defence Ministry’s annual report underscores how the May 2025 military response to the Pahalgam terror attack redefined India’s approach to cross-border terrorism and integrated operations involving intelligence, precision strike, and emerging technologies.

Legal Framework and Diplomatic Protocols

The MEA accused Pakistani naval units of breaching Article 10 of the 1991 Agreement, which mandates advance notice for military exercises. This provision aims to prevent unplanned encounters between forces, a cornerstone of crisis management in South Asia. The collision, described as “unprofessional” by Indian sources, occurred during a routine surveillance mission by an Indian warship. While no damage was reported, the incident reflects recurring lapses in adherence to bilateral norms.

The legal architecture governing such conflicts includes the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act 1967, which empowers agencies like the NIA to investigate terror-linked activities, and the Armed Forces Special Powers Act 1958, which grants military authority in conflict zones. These frameworks, however, operate alongside diplomatic agreements like the 1991 pact, underscoring the interplay between legal enforcement and international protocols.

• ▸Article 10 of the 1991 Agreement requires advance notice for military exercises.
• ▸The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act 1967 enables prosecution of terror-linked entities.
• ▸The Armed Forces Special Powers Act 1958 authorizes military action in insurgency-prone regions.

Civil-Military Relations: Constitutional and Institutional Dynamics

India’s civil-military relations are anchored in constitutional provisions like Article 53(2), which vests executive power in the Prime Minister, and Article 77, ensuring civilian oversight of foreign affairs. The Defence Committee of the Cabinet, chaired by the Prime Minister, coordinates policy, while the Department of Defence, led by a civilian minister, manages bureaucratic control. This structure ensures that military actions, such as Operation Sindoor, align with civilian strategic priorities.

Operation Sindoor, launched on May 6-7, 2025, targeted infrastructure linked to the Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed in Pakistan and PoK. The Defence Ministry’s report frames it as a “precise, calibrated, non-escalatory” response, emphasizing intelligence-driven targeting to avoid civilian harm. The operation’s success hinged on integrating the Indian Air Force’s precision-guided munitions with real-time intelligence—a testament to the effectiveness of civilian-military coordination under the Defence Committee of the Cabinet framework.

• ▸Article 53(2) of the Constitution vests executive power in the Prime Minister.
• ▸The Defence Committee of the Cabinet oversees strategic military decisions.
• ▸Operation Sindoor utilized long-range precision weapons and intelligence-based targeting.

Socioeconomic Roots of Security Challenges

The Pahalgam attack, which killed 26 tourists, underscores the socioeconomic dimensions of terrorism. Cross-border funding, radicalization in conflict-affected regions, and the porous India-Pakistan border remain persistent challenges. The MEA’s condemnation of Pakistan’s “unprofessional” naval conduct reflects broader concerns about state-sponsored instability.

The 2025 review of capability gaps post-Sindoor highlights the need for jointness among the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The report advocates restructuring forces to address emerging threats, including unmanned systems and cyber warfare. These reforms aim to bridge gaps exposed by the Pahalgam attack and subsequent military response, which revealed deficiencies in border management and intelligence sharing.

• ▸The Pahalgam attack on April 22, 2025, killed 26 tourists.
• ▸The Defence Ministry’s review emphasizes joint operations and technology integration.
• ▸Cross-border terrorism funding and radicalization remain key socioeconomic drivers.

Geopolitical Dimension: India-China Engagement and Border Stability

The Defence Ministry’s report notes a reduction in PLA deployments along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) in 2025, contrasting with robust Indian Army readiness. Border Personnel Meetings with the PLA continued in a “cordial” environment, suggesting diplomatic engagement. However, the collision with Pakistan’s navy and Sindoor’s aftermath highlight the dual pressure India faces from its northern and western borders.

China’s strategic focus on the LAC, coupled with Pakistan’s military posturing, demands a calibrated response. The report’s emphasis on “network-centric operations” reflects India’s push to integrate air, land, and maritime assets—a shift from traditional siloed approaches. This integration is critical as India navigates the complexities of a triangular rivalry involving China and Pakistan.

• ▸PLA deployments along the LAC reduced to 10 brigade-sized units in 2025.
• ▸Border Personnel Meetings with the PLA maintained “cordial” relations.
• ▸India’s focus on network-centric operations aims to unify military domains.

Way Forward: Strengthening Integrated Security

India’s response to the naval clash and Sindoor underscores the need